Theories of Learning for Classrooms

Theories of scholarship for instructrooms teaching is the process that results in a comparatively enduring change in a person or persons (Alexander et al, 2009 186). Learning is a high-voltage process whereby the students association and skills atomic number 18 different ahead to after encyclopaedism (Winn, 1990). Teaching is by definition the promotion of information and ought therefore to be informed by the best of our knowledge scratchyly erudition. Learning and training poses a synergistic family that is teachers take away to teach with an set about that reinforces how students naturally learn (Muijs brooks book).A number of educational inquiryers disco biscuit acquirement figure of speechs to relieve how someones learn. The way students learn set up be apply to foster in force(p) doctrine pr trifleices, and ultimately adapt training with positive acquire and educational go outs. Understanding how knowledge is bristleed and comprehend advise stick out teachers to shape the methodological deli very(prenominal) of their subject inwardness to sum up the theoretical frame forges, underpinning how knowledge is processed. Attending to the nature of student scholarship stub allow teachers to improve their practice and in turn the tint of the learners experience (Macleod Golby, 2003). The extremes of this reading theory spectrum argon represented by the behaviorist and Constructivist theories of information.Behaviouristic opening of LearningLearning, according to behaviorists (Watson, Pavlov), is defined as acquisition of revolutionary behaviour. The focus of behaviorism is on the condition of observ qualified gay behaviour and is based on the principal facial expression that a reply is made in resolution to a precise stimulus. This reaction leads to a consequence. If the consequence is pleasant and positive, the behaviour change starts build. With consistent reenforcement, the behaviour simulate becomes conditioned and is automatically activated upon stimuli presentation.Physiologically, behaviourist theories propose that culture is achieved with and by dint of advantage of a break officular neural pathway, which links the stimuli and reaction in the brain. This activation and reinforcement results in a faster, smoother implementation of authorized reactions and responses. The connections amid the stimuli and specific responses ar built adjustly and then reinforced over time through practise and repetition, which ultimately strengthens the neural pathways, resulting in a much efficient response to the stimuli. (Pritchard).Behaviourists term this form of skill conditioning, whereby with consistent reinforcement the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned. Classical conditioning involves the reinforcement of a natural reflex or behaviours which occur naturally as a response to a specific stimulus. In contrast, operant conditioning involves reinforcing a behaviour by praisi ng it, or discouraging unwanted behaviour with punishment. The rewarding phases of this conditioning processing is known as reinforcement. However, this stimulus-response relationship discounts any(prenominal) mental processes which whitethorn be involved in acquire.Researchers, including Vygotsky 1962 amongst others, began to criticize the behaviourist flack, as it was seen too teacher centred and directed, void of heart and soulful training and the teacher process was foc recitationd too much on psyche sort of than collaborative group work. In addition, the wee-weeivist perspective challenged the implied separation between mental processing and knowledge, which had to be bridged by the role of a teacher.Constructivist TheoryThe wee-weeivist movement was formed on Pi advancets (1976) and Vygotsky (1986) work who view discipline as the effect of mental twist, whereby learners combine their existing knowledge with upstart information, to construct meaning and formulate th eir understand. The constructivist theory proposes that study is an propellent process, a well-disposed drill, contextual, centred on constructing meaning and regards the learner as a responsible component in their knowledge acquisition (Loyens 2007. In constructivist acquire, psyches draw in their experience of the world well-nigh them and work to make sense of what they perceive in order to build an judgement of what is surrounding them (Harris, 1994). Since constructivism involves learners to interact with their immediate acquire surround, information has been considered to be situation-specific and context-bound activity (McInerney and McInerney, 2002.Constructivism is an umbrella term to encompass the colossal range of constructivist perspectives, which can be separated into two branches cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1976) and loving constructivism (Vygotsky, 1986). Both sub-types opine that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals Birenbaum 2003, how ever through the use of different mediums either through a series of internal, quick-witted re-creates (cognitive constructivism), or by social fundamental interaction including interactions with world based, external experiences (social constructivism). The many perspectives on constructivism at heart these two sub-types could be essentially grouped around a rooted assumption about learning. That is, knowledge is actively constructed by the learner (Birenbaum 2003 Harris and Alexander 1998)Piagets developmental grades theory, which represents cognitive constructivism, presents four age-referenced development stages which earmark a theory of gradual cognitive development up to the age of eleven years old. The stages refer to an explicit age range and measure up the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment.Social constructivism fiercenesses the role of language in the process of intellectual development. Vygotsky considered dialogue , ordinarily but not always with a to a greater extent knowledgeable other, as a vehicle by which concepts argon considered, shared and developed. The dialogue, which is based on learners pre existing and received knowledge (schemas), is then exploited to develop and construct new ideas and grounds. Vygotsky advocates that the process of learning involves moving into and across a regulate of proximal development, which is aided by the intervention of other through nutriment. The geographical zone of proximal development is a theoretical space of collar which is incisively above the level of an individuals up-to-the-minute collar. The process of giving digest to learners at the appropriate time and level of sophistication to meet the individual demand is termed scaffolding. Scaffolding can allow the movement from one zone to another and assists in the passing through the zone of proximal development.From inspectioning the literature, educational researchers which exer cise these constructivist dominions select aspects from both strands of this learning theory (Biggs, 1979, Cunningham, 1996), and use constructivist theories as a generalised term. However, as Mathews and Lui suck up, combining the plethora of constructivist variants is questionable, and generalisations made whitethorn boast less significance and loss of meaning. accordingly, for the purpose of this assignment, the term constructivism will study a collaboration of both social and cognitive strands however specific branches and the implications of these strands are highlighted where necessary.Critique of learning theories and associated implications upon classroom practiceA review of the literature suggests that behaviorist learning does not offer students the chance to develop deep meaning and arrangement (Einworth and Collins), but instead has a intent to promote superficial learning of skills (Fosnot, 1996). Making a correct response and remembering content does not necess arily imply understanding, and consequently the unfeigned understanding achieved through behavioral courtes is challenged. Hounsell, Entwistle, 1997 conclude that the use of rote learning committal to memory represents a learning approach to a go forth level of understanding, whilst establishing connections with current knowledge reflects an approach for a deeper level of understanding.In contrast, from a constructivist perspective, the principle of learning using prior experience is in effect(p) in promoting a deeper and richer understanding (Pressley, Harris Marks, 1992). Demerici advises that information which is connected to a learners prior experiences is more plausibly to be retained, explaining high retention rates when a constructivist approach is adopted. (Demirici). cor do to Fosnot, the focus of attention in constructivist perspective is concept development and deeper understanding. This research suggests that constructivist approaches lead to a great, richer a nd deeper understanding. It is therefore plausible to suggest that the quality and insight of understanding associated to a constructivist inform approach is more seeming to overstep that of the behaviourist approach.However, as Entwhistle and Smith (2002) identify, the association between memorization and surface approach may be weak. Kember, 1996 Watkins Biggs, 1996 describe that memorisation can be used to learn un well-known(prenominal) terminology, as the first stage to establishing understanding. This concept, where memorisation is part of meaning(prenominal) learning, is defined as memorising with understanding (Marton, Watkins,Tang, 1997 Meyer, 2000, and has been conducted by students as a successful revision tool (Entwistle Entwistle, 2001) In addition, (Smith, 2001, 2002a) affirms that rote learning can contribute to understanding.Therefore, it appears that behaviouristic learning approaches can be beneficial for certain tasks much(prenominal) as establishing c lassroom behaviour (Fulton). Teachers could consider deploying beahviorusitlic approaches to the learning of classroom behaviour, especially for pupils who display anxious tendencies and low motivation (Prittard Fulton). Those of higher academic ability perceive simplistic drill and practice deceitful and dull (Prittard). In addition, some students demand understanding, yet adhering to behaviouristic learning approaches does not accommodate this craving. In other situations, the concepts of learning without understanding can fuel frustration, lead to misconceptions and interpret a difficult learning environment (Prittard).Controversially, Fox (2001) suggests that the constructivist theory may imply that remembering is not consequential, and that learning is only if centred on understanding concepts. However, neither of these are true, and existence able to remember knowledge is an important prerequisite of learning. In addition, Biggs, (1998) and Jin and Ortazzi, (1998) have re ported that constructivist teaching approaches dont consistently guarantee teaching effectiveness. Instead, traditional, more behaviourist approaches to learning in large classes has proven to be successful internationally, much(prenominal) as in China.Fox, 2001, argues that constructivism neglects the role of memorisation and mechanical learning techniques Arguably, due to the change nature of meaning which is uncontrollably constructed by students, in some cases, rote learning and memorisation may be more useful when teaching factual concepts and where clarity in understanding is required. Rote learning may be used to benefactor students cope better with some aspects of work that they find difficult. However, teachers essential consider that rote learning is not an approach to develop understanding and therefore where feasible, should be compriseed by attempts to encourage understanding. trite school and classroom routines and expectations for behaviour can be learnt throug h behaviouristic approaches. In the case of behaviour management, a strategy to quieten the class, such as raising of the plenty, or counting bulge out from three could be effectively used. In this case, the stimulus, such as the teacher raising their hand or calling out the number three, must be richly explained to the class. In addition, the stimuli must be fully visible and audible to the students, which is possible with a clearly risen hand or an assertive voice. The response desired, such as a student raising of the hand and silence, must be fully understood by students.It is important that the stimulus-response occurrence should be repeated by the teacher and used regularly. The similar strategy should be employed every time the teacher wants to quieten the class, establishing consistency of stimuli and behavioural response. This repeated activation strengthens the pathways, affording for a smoother and faster implementation of the response. . Pupils should be made aware of the negative and positive consequences if they do not respond to the stimuli as desired and the consequences need to be kept consistent. Therefore, consistency of behaviour management strategies is crucial and classroom practice must adhere to the same strategise as the same stimuli is presented for a specific response.Behaviourism relies on reinforcement which is employed to condition the behaviour, and therefore is essentially the tool which brings about learning. Therefore rewards and punishments for behaviours must play a crucial role and actively administered indoors classroom practice. Behaviourism may therefore stimulate and encourage more use of positive reinforcement which has been a long standing effective classroom practice (Elliott and Busse, 1991 fulton book). However teachers must consider that rewarding children who are already highly motivated may not be as effective, and may really lead to a loss of interest (Fulton) Rewards and sycophancy have been shown to kindle motivation, and serve as an effective behaviour management tool, however, praising students may not come naturally to teachers.However, behaviourist approaches dont discipline account of mental cognitive processing involved in learning. In contrast, constructivism ferocityes that the learners must develop their understanding for themselves and constructivist researchers advocate that mental activity is the lifeblood of learning and the extent of what is learnt (Howe 1999). Teachers cannot assume that the products of learning are solely the teachers effort and melodic theme instead learning requires effort on the part of the learner. Teachers need to offer scope of activities where the accustomed effort and activity falls on the learners responsibility. such(prenominal) opportunities would afford learner maneuverment and optimise the possibility of effective unchangeable learning taking place (Prittard).A vast array of confirming literature endorses the success of con structive approaches. Research informs that learning through such constructive mediums, like controvertion, participation, practice, are successful and associated with learning gains and knowledge retention. Demirci Yavuz (2009). Dericimi likewise reported a significant difference in post-test grades and retention learning tests grades, with the constructivist approach being more efficient than the conventional, behaviouristic approach.However, the constructivist theory may imply that all individual differences in learning come down to the consequences of each learners history of learning )Loyens, 2008.Furthermore, although we do learn by getting knowledge from our environments through interacting with the external world, Fox highlights that the environment too acts upon learners. That is, we act and react and learning can be achieved from both experiences. However, constructivism appears to fail to remark adaptive instinctive responses as reactive forms of learning (Fox, 200 1) and the role of gift in cognitive development. Furthermore, Fox (2001) and Bredo, (2000) argues that constructivism discounts the role of innate, motivational and genetic factors in knowledge construction, which have been proven to play a role in cognitive development and ealrning Carey Spelke, 1994).Another assumption refers to an epistemological assumption that students actively seek resources and experiences, which are anchored by their pre-existing knowledge. In addition, it is assumed that learners habituate the construed data to actively construct their knowledge (Renkl). Therefore, this approach to learning relies on students encountering experiences and applying these experiences to their pre-existing knowledge to develop their understanding. However, such experiences and world-based interactions may not be feasible or available to students due to their lifestyle circumstances. Consequently, teachers need to be aware that understanding and meaning is limited to the ind ividual experiences of the students. In conformation with this assumption, the constructivist theory can explain why pupils conceptions and meaning do transmute between each other (Taber, 2000). Given that learning is achieved through the constructing activity of the student, the individual can only understand or know what he or she has constructed (Dunn and Cunningham, 1996).Therefore, constructivism may be seen as subjective and relative (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996).. This may lead to marking criteria discrepancies, confusion and inconsistency, and student misconceptions, which do not match humans. In addition, Duffy and Cunningham propose that if the constructions and meanings are different amongst students, the little shared understanding may challenge the ease of communication between learners and the class. This may queer the effectiveness of class discussions and social interactions as a tool to enhance learning.Similarly, as construction is activity on part of the learne r (Bruner 1966, 1971), what is constructed cannot be controlled by the teacher. Instead the learner has autonomy and self-regulates what understanding is established. Therefore the students constructed understanding may not parallel with other students, with reality or with the teachers construction and understanding. Consequently, teachers must not assume that the construction and understanding of a concept is universal between all students. Instead teachers must actively rise to power and consider the alternative perceptions and understanding of the learners hence why a transmitting approach is fruitless.On the other hand, teachers come into the classroom with their own construction and conceptions of subject content, and according to Patrick 1988, are not neutral. Therefore, a teachers understanding can colour the students understanding, and together, Patrick, 1998 and Marton and Booth (1997) suggested that some teachers moulded the students construction of a concept to align w ith their concept interpretation. Ellisowths review concludes that the form of understanding impressed onto students is largely aquiline on the teachers personal interpretation of the subject content. Therefore, although the constructivist theory assumes that the construction of understanding is the product of the learners interpretation exclusively, the constructivist theory does not account for the interplay between teachers and learners comprehension.Importantly, to help oneself progressive learning and avoid develop misconceptions, teachers need to provide a clear focus and goals, with explicit learning objectives, which are rooted within pupils existing knowledge. The clear objectives allow students to construct their ideas using current knowledge and understand the overarching direction and progression oftheir learning. Activating prior knowledge is important to elicit pre-knowledge, allowing teachers to decipher the conceptual frameworks they are operating within.Teachers need to highlight the links between students existing knowledge and the new subject knowledge, to help the learner form bridges and facilitate their mental construction and cognitive processes (REF). By forming these links, students can activate and recall their pre-existing knowledge, and use this rear to build and integrate new concepts. Teachers should encourage students to relate new knowledge to current knowledge and external experiences, allowing the new subject content to become embedded within the existing knowledge structures, contributing to or amending to the students schema.Since learning constructively is based on the addition of new content to current knowledge, the learner must have sufficient levels of understanding before new content can be used to construct more convoluted meaning and progress. Teachers and educators need to consider that new content cannot be built up until the foundations, such as current knowledge, is secured.To accommodate these pre-requisite s of learning, the individuals knowledge needfully to be continually assessed. As a regular classroom practice, plastic sagaciousness could be used as a regular approach to assess existing and new understanding, before moving to the next lesson. fictile estimate is a regular, informal mode of assessment, allowing teachers to monitor students progress, gain an hold of what has been learnt and adapt their teaching practices to optimise further learning (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Accordingly, given that learning is an active and evolving processes, formative assessment can be used by teachers to assess, monitor, challenge unclear perspectives and adapt classroom practices to accommodate the constructivist principles of learning. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that constructivist approaches to learning favour the use of formative assessment and may enliven its use in the classrooms, which Lamon, 2001 reports as being more valuable.Since formative assessment alone is associ ated with learning gains, (Black and Wiliam 1998), learning is positively influenced indirectly via adopting teaching strategies which are aligned to learning constructively. Formative assessment may be undertaken through questioning, teacher and pupil discussion, peer assessment and interaction with peers. Formative assessment will also identify pupils individual learning needs, supporting teachers conduct in differentiation to assure pupils are moving forward, across their ZPD and optimise learning gains. Formative assessment can be achieved in the classroom, through discussion, questioning, peer assessment, self-assessment and feedback.However, with behaviourism, the opportunities for feedback are confined to only whether the response desired is correct or not. There is little scope for learning, or how to improve in order to meet the desired response. Therefore, under behaviourist approaches, feedback cannot be used for learning purposes, therefore opportunities for assessment f or learning, which have shown to enhance learning, may not be fruitful. Consequently, limited feedback combined with the objective outcomes of behaviourist approaches mean that individual student needs are not necessarily part of the formulae when considering teaching strategies and subject content. The need to consider individual needs is undeniable, therefore such constraints of feedback extent presents a multitude of problems to the teaching and learning of students.When constructing new concepts and developing understanding, reviewing and reflecting on what has already been learnt also helps to establish and secure students preceding(prenominal) knowledge. In addition, by asking what students understand before embarking on a new concept would help students form links between new and previous knowledge (Fulton). This reviewing could be done as a starter, but also plays a role at the end of the lesson, forming a plenary. Teachers should consider, incorporate and externalize for well managed plenary to consolidate knowledge. Time to reflect upon what has been undertaken, the processes and the content gives the probability for internalisation and for a deeper level of understanding to be developed.Similarly, learning is close to effective when learners become engaged, which means that teachers need to adopt an active approach to learning and involve engaging tasks to promote learning in the classroom. Learning using authentic tasks, which allow pupils to relate to their own experience intimate and outside the classroom (Selinger, 2001) increases the probability of engagement with the task and supports findings that learning in a familiar context is most effective. Authentic tasks are credibly to hold the attention and interest of children, and lead to a deeper level of engagement than with non-authentic or less authentic tasks (Fulton). Favourably, the constructivist principles match those naturals associated with effective learning.This active perspect ive of constructive learning (Phillips, 1995) is often contrasted with behaviourist stimulus-response relationship, which has been defined as a passive view in learning. However, reading and listening are allowd within this constructive approach to teaching, which could be argued to be more passive approaches. Whilst this suggests that all cognition is active, to talking and writing, listening and reading are relatively passive. Traditionalists do not deny the importance of dialogue, and this may be utilised in questioning and answering, it is more that behaviourists place greater emphasis on knowledge and on the teacher as being knowledgeable, rather than learners and their existing knowledge (Fox). A balance is needed between emphasis on the teachers and learners, since too much emphasis on either part can lead to prescriptions for teaching which may ignore the students needs or dismiss the teachers as a significant resource of knowledge.An active learning approach can be achieve d by encouraging students to explore concepts and ideas, and to follow their instincts (Wray and Lewis, 1997). Given that exploration can promote sequential development of ideas, it is likely to assist in the construction of new knowledge the roots to constructivism. Classroom practice could be based on a discovery-based approach Huitt, 2004, where students can find answers out for themselves, answer their own questions through experimenting with new ideas and discuss their beliefs and thinking patterns with their peers. Importantly, engaging with each other reflects social interactions, which can be a vehicle to develop understanding using social interaction. contradictory behaviourist approaches where the teacher is the primary resources of knowledge and is influenced by their interests and perspective knowledge construction offers the opportunity of learning to become dynamic and varied, opposed to being static and prescribed (Sudizna). The use of resources promotes more interact ive learning and interest, which are both shown to positively influence learning.Behaviourist approaches have been criticised for not addressing this dynamic nature of learning as its theory assumes a static and evaluate view of knowledge learning. Supported by Winn 1990, student knowledge is dynamic and changes, that is knowledge and skills are different before learning to after instruction, and behaviourism does not take this into account. In addition, behaviourism theory does not prise that students come into classrooms with prior knowledge. Conversely, the constructivist theory acknowledges that pre-existing knowledge is requisite of learning and that students enter classrooms with pre-conceptions, knowledge and beliefs which they deploy in constructing new understanding. (Jones, Carter, Rua, 1999)As already discussed, scaffolding is crucial for the learner to pass through their zone of proximal development, and can be undertaken by the teacher. Scaffolding can be serious in the classroom in many ways, and teachers need to appreciate that this is fundamental to the educational progression of students and how this may be achieved. Support materials need to be widely available, such as a writing frame to support a particular style of prose, or a list of speech communication to help in the process of completing an exercise, intentional to assist understanding The provision of practical apparatus, especially in science, may help to explain the solution to a problem and is an engaging approach. Students can evidence reality and attach a sense of perspective and reality to their learning.Given the alpha nature of constructivism, classroom practice needs to be accessory and generate an environment where the student feels safe to ask for help and comfortable in approaching the teacher. The teacher must be aware of the different supportive needs of the class, and meet these through differentiation and allowing time for class discussion, misconceptions and a ny lack of understanding. To help the teacher identify those who need more support than others, formative assessment can be incorporated to highlight the students individual needs that need to be addressed. Ultimately, this will allow tasks to be designed and geared towards the individuals learning ability.Unlike, behaviourism theories, constructivist theory accounts for the role of social learning and potential of interaction and recognises the importance of social interaction (Phillips, 1995). Incorporating social interaction opportunities, using language as a medium to construct ideas in groups of varying sizes, both with and without the teacher are encouraged and popular in classroom practice today (Jones and Brader-anjerie, 2002).Dialouge is proposed to constitue a crucial component of the constructivism paradigm ((Greeno et al. 1996 (Steffe and Gale 1995).Loyens, 2008. Discussion is fundamental and can be used through augmenting, debating, discussing concepts, teacher question ing and pupils presenting. Teachers should encourage students to work collaboratively, in pairs or small groups, and allow them to help each other and construct their own meaning in their own words of a concept. Dialogue with others allows additional and alternative perspectives to be taken into account when developing personal conclusions. Different knowledge, points of view and understanding can be given and considered before moving on. Teachers should listen to pupils, and use their words for explaining concepts and draw on other opinions of class members.Constructivist theory also takes into account that learning is contextual. Evidence suggests that learning occurs in real-life contexts and learning is actually linked to a context, as deduced by Macleod and Goldby 2003. Children working with new ideas in a familiar content are more likely to engage with the ideas, than if the same ideas were present in an alien context. Therefore teachers should strive to include more authentic tasks and set learning concepts which are aligned with students familiar contexts. If a learning activity falls beyond the cultural understanding of the learning, then learning is likely to be less successful than if it had been determine in a more familiar setting. .Meaningful contexts for learning are very important however, what is meaningful for a teacher is not necessarily meaningful for the student. The association between the concept of learning being situated and the need for authentic learning tasks is evidence (McFarlane, 1997).However, the recommended approach to situation learning in meaningful contexts (e.g. Lave Wenger, 1991) has been argued against. Walkerdine, 1988, for example argued that if school learning became situated solely within the lived world of daily experiences, the opportunities for abstract reasoning and reflective activity, which are all constituents of constructivism, would become limited and sacrificed, whilst confining students to their local xx xxxxx?The exactness of the Piaget stage of development has been criticised, that is to say children may pass through the stage, but it is not clear that they will pass through the stages at specific ages, however, as a developmental trail, this theory is useful in teaching practices. Piagets stage developmental theory offers guidance covering the level of complexity that may be expected in a childs thought processes at approximate stages in their development. Whilst Piagets developmental stage theory influences principally primary school teaching practices, given the ages this theory is related to, the appreciation and awareness that c